The concept of a vegetarian diet is ancient. Throughout history various types of vegetarian diet and lifestyle have been followed either by necessity or advocated for a variety of reasons. The term ‘vegetarian’ however, was not coined until the mid-nineteenth century. Unfortunately, publications concerning the history of vegetarianism are sparse. It is hoped therefore that this brief examination of the development of the vegetarian diet may give some insight into the beliefs held by some vegetarians and of  the way society has viewed them. Such insight is essential if the influence of being vegetarian on health is to be understood. A full discussion of the definition of the term ‘vegetarian’ is beyond the scope of this paper (See Robinson and Hackett, 1995); it will be defined here as anyone who does not eat animal flesh (but might eat fish).

 

 

Pre-history.

            It has been suggested that the earliest hominids were vegetarian as they had broad flat teeth unsuited to an omnivorous diet (Wilson, 1983). Another view (Higgs, 1995) is that the development of the ability to hunt was the factor which enabled some hominids to survive to become our ancestors (Homo erectus). Australian aborigines, who first migrated to Australia from South-East Asia 40,000 - 50,000 years ago, ate meat orientated diets and not predominantly vegetarian diets (Lee, 1996). The presence of a simple stomach and underdeveloped caecum and appendix in Homo sapiens suggests dependence upon a non-vegetarian diet at an early stage in human evolution. It is unlikely that our opportunist ancestors would have missed a rich meal containing flesh much like our nearest relatives (chimpanzees) who are now accepted to be omnivores and might be described as predators (Stanford, 1995). Ancient paintings are interpreted as part of sympathetic magical beliefs, for example those at Lascaux (15,000 - 10,000BC) suggest that animals were hunted and that this was an activity of great importance. This paper however concerns the voluntary avoidance of meat or the adoption of a vegetarian diet for whatever reason.

 

 

The first clinical trial of vegetarian diet?

            This is described in the Old Testament book of Daniel (1: 1-15). Daniel refused Nebuchadnezzar’s rich (flesh) foods and wine and insisted upon having vegetables to eat and water to drink for ten days after which the appearance of he and his companions was to be compared to that of youths who ate the king’s food. Daniel’s group were duly judged to be  ‘...better in appearance and fatter in flesh...’. The book of Daniel however was written about 160BC based on events of about 600BC (Talmon, 1987; Grimes, 1995). The real point was to emphasise Daniel’s superior wisdom and, by refusing the king’s food, his self-assertion despite being enslaved by the king. Thus this earliest reference already shows the importance of food to identity, an association of vegetarian diet with rebellion and the use of quasi scientific methods to confound.

 

 

Classical Greece & Rome.

            In the 6th Century BC, Pythagoras (often termed the father of vegetarianism) proposed the theory that the soul was destined to a series of re-incarnations (metempsychosis). The "Pythagorean" diet which was near-vegan in its strictest form, followed from this theory (Spencer, 1994). It is apparent that degrees of adherence to the Pythagorean diet existed. Pythagoras had two classes of followers, the inner circle of scientists who followed the most restricted diet (consisting of bread, honey, cereals, fruits and some vegetables), and the outer circle who listened to esoteric teachings and were allowed to eat flesh and some wine but were required to abstain on certain days (Spencer, 1994). Thus vegetarian diet was early associated with ‘intellectuals’ and the strictest diet was deemed to be most worthy. The Pythagorean diet was banned in Rome where the huge Empire was insecure whilst in the smaller Greek states the Pythagorean diet was more acceptable (Spencer, 1994). Hippocrates (460 - 370BC) suggested that eating habits had developed from a “strong, brutish diet” (of fruit, weeds and grass) as eaten by animals which led to disease and early death (Adams, 1952). By implication the inclusion of meat in the human diet was beneficial for health.

 

            Meat played an important part in the diet of the Greeks and was associated with strength. The Greek athletes had diets composed of gargantuan quantities of meat and the concept of meat for performance has persisted for many centuries (Nieman, 1989). For poor Greeks meat was a rarity except for religious sacrifices and at feasts. The priest would divide the sacrifice into three; one third for the gods, one third for the priest and the other for the donors. Only rich Greeks could eat meat without waiting for a sacrificial occasion (Tannahill, 1988) and for the poorer Greeks vegetarianism was necessary for economic reasons. Galen’s (131 - 200AD) views on medicine prevailed up until the renaissance. He held that fruits and vegetables did not have great nutritional value but pork was particularly suitable for athletes (Fidanza, 1979). Greek medical practices were introduced to Rome by Asclepiades (first century BC) but these were developed by such people as Celsus (?25BC - ??) who classified food into three groups: strong, medium and weak (Fidanza, 1979). The strength of the meat was associated with the size of the animal; the larger the animal, the stronger the meat (Riddell, 1931). Plutarch (46 - 120AD) however, recommended a meat free diet partly because meat was associated with the ‘lust of cruelty and bloodshed’ and partly to promote health for example, in his rules for the preservation of health he wrote (Cherniss and Helmbold, 1976):

 

"Indigestion is to be feared after flesh-eating for it very soon clogs us and leaves ill consequences behind it. It would be best to accustom oneself to eat no flesh at all, for the earth affords plenty enough of things fit not only for nourishment but for delight and joy".

 

This demonstrates that the recommendation of meat free diet to promote physical health is not a recent practice as has been suggested (Whorton, 1994). It is also notable that even in these early times vegetarians met with hostility which is sometimes seen today. This may be associated with the fact that the adoption of a vegetarian diet may be indicative of a radical thinker, a member of a minority group, whose criticism of society may be seen as a threat by the majority. In Germany it is of note that the Nazi’s disbanded the vegetarian society in 1934 (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963) despite Hitler being a fanatical vegetarian, which emphasises the link with subversive intellectuals and the problems of being different. Tremolieres (1975), suggests that "to change eating habits is to change the type of a society".

 

 

Vegetarianism in the East.

            In the East at about the time of Pythagoras vegetarianism became central to the Hindu, Buddhist, and later the Sikh religions (Spencer, 1994). This followed logically from the idea of reincarnation, the transmigration of souls, which is important to all these religions (Hardinge and Crooks, 1964) and can be summarised by King Asoka’s edict of about 250BC ‘Not to injure living things is good’ (In: Pyke, 1968). The Chinese seem to have no great tradition of vegetarian diet (back to 21st century BC) although some ‘attention’ was paid to vegetarian food in the Han dynasty (206 BC - 907AD) (Chen & Hu, 1996). There are important similarities and distinctions between the reactions of the East and West towards the idea of vegetarianism. In the East, Brahmin priests of the Hindu religion aspired to follow strict vegetarian diets and those who ate meat were looked down upon. The vegetarian diet was seen as an act of denial and perhaps because of this its adherents were respected which is similar to attitudes in Christian church. In the extreme the followers of Zen macrobiotic diets are “notorious for self injury” (Whorton , 1994). In the East however, the vegetarian diet did not seem to be perceived as a threat to society with which it has often been regarded in the West. This may be because most people were vegetarian and even today 83% of the Indian population follow a vegetarian diet (Spencer, 1994) although it is debatable to what extent this is from choice; flesh foods tend to be expensive. In more recent years there has been a growth in the West of interest in Eastern mysticism which often embraces vegetarian diet in order to attain spiritual harmony and inner peace (Whorton, 1994).

 

 

The Renaissance.

            The influence of ancient Greece and Rome was immense and was not greatly challenged until the renaissance when many doctrines were questioned notably by Paracelsus (1493-1541). With the fall of the ancient culture in the West, the vegetarian idea virtually disappeared, except in certain orders of the Catholic church (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). The rule of St. Benedict (480-547) required that all monks, except the weak and the sick, abstain from meat which suggests reservations about the adequacy of a vegetarian diet (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). It also suggests that abstinence or self-denial is the important factor not the exclusion of meat per-se. The reformed Trappist order developed in the 17th century from the Cistercian monks and are all vegetarians (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). A more extreme form of self-denial, fasting, was thought to assure salvation by repelling demons and combating lechery (Tremolieres, 1975). Abstinence therefore, has always been an important component of spiritual, if not physical, health in many religions, for example Lent for Christians and Ramadan for Muslims.

 

In the middle ages a further argument in favour of vegetarian diet was added; Sir Thomas Moore in his Utopia (1516) seems to be the first to draw attention to the fact that large amounts of land are necessary for the rearing of livestock (Spencer, 1994):

 

"They enclose all into pasture, they throw down the houses, they pluck down the towns and leave nothing standing, but only the church to be made a sheep house..."

 

Much later Humbolt (C19) went further: “One person living on meat virtually robs 249 persons of their means of sustenance” (Quoted: Miles, 1901). Such statements were the basis for arguments in an influential book "Diet for a Small planet" (Lappé, 1982), and are often reiterated as a reason for adopting a vegetarian diet.

 

 

Renewed interest in seventeenth century England.

            In the 17th century, vegetarianism in England rose in popularity (Spencer, 1994) and Thomas Tyron (1634-1703) was an important influence (Whorton, 1994) but physical well-being was a major concern besides objecting to the cruel exploitation of "fellow creatures" (Spencer, 1994; Whorton, 1994). Tyson proposed that because meat rots so quickly outside the body it will incite internal putrefaction if taken into the body. Nevertheless, he justified the vegetarian diet primarily with biblical references saying that it was the original diet prescribed by God (Genesis 1:29) but that flesh was later permitted after the fall (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). In contrast Henry Moore (1653), considered that cattle and sheep were only given life in the first place so that their meat could be kept fresh (Spencer, 1994). Furthermore the book of Leviticus (Chapter 11) which details the Hebrew code makes it clear that flesh (of some creatures at least) is a suitable food. Meat has traditionally been symbolic of wealth in England, and the increase in affluence in the 17th century fuelled an increase in meat consumption (despite the rise in vegetarianism) and it was not uncommon for 7-8 meat dishes to be consumed at one meal time (Spencer, 1994). Obesity became a major problem for the wealthy, and its treatment with a vegetarian diet was demonstrated by Dr. Cheyne who at 32 stone went on to a strict diet of milk and vegetables and his health problems disappeared (Spencer, 1994).

 

 

The eighteenth century.

            Opposition to vivisection emerged in the 18th century and writers of this time wrote passionately on the subject contributing to the foundation of new humanism. The first major title to come out of this movement was "The Cry of Nature" by John Oswald (1730-1793) (Whorton, 1994). It was not only the humanists who had influence but also the dietitians (Spencer, 1994). For example, William Stark (1730-1770) repeatedly experimented upon himself by imposing a variety of very restrictive dietarys (sometimes vegetarian - bread based). He eventually succumbed (probably to scurvy) but at least proved the folly of wholesale exclusions from the diet (McCollum, 1957; Drummond & Wilbrahan, 1957). The vegetarian diet was given credibility by other doctors such as John Abernethy writing in "Surgical Observations on Tumours" (1804), "it appears certain in general that the body can be perfectly nourished by vegetables" (cited by Spencer, 1994).

In addition the London Physician William Lambe (1765-1847) adopted a vegetarian diet in an attempt to cure his health problems. Lambe reports some of the problems he encountered when changing to a vegetarian diet, "the only unpleasant consequence of the change was a sense of emptiness in the stomach, which continued many months"; in about a year however he became fully reconciled to the new habit. Lambe then began to use the diet to treat patients ill with cancer. An examination of the relatively few accounts of the history of vegetarianism reveal few references to children. Lambe however, felt that a vegetarian diet was appropriate for children and also suggested that a vegetarian diet may in fact be superior to an omnivorous diet for health:

 

"I am well acquainted with a family of young children who have scarcely ever touched animal food,... for clearness and beauty of complexion, muscular strength, fullness of habit free from grossness, hardiness, healthiness and ripeness of intellect these children are unparalleled".

 

A recent review (Hackett et al, 1998) concludes that a vegetarian diet can be suitable for children and shares several similar problems to omnivorous diets but wholesale exclusions can be dangerous ie the extreme macrobiotic diets which exclude many vegetable foods as well as foods of animal origin.

 

 

The industrial revolution.

            Vegetarians began to meet in 1809 in Manchester, when the Bible Christian church led by Reverend William Cowherd agreed to abstain from flesh foods and alcohol (Encyclopaedia Britannica cited: Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). John Newton adopted a vegetarian diet for his health and wrote a book: “The Return to Nature” (1811) which is suggested to represent the start of modern vegetarianism (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). The first conference on vegetarianism was held at Ramsgate in 1847 during which the Vegetarian Society was formed and its first annual meeting was held in Manchester in 1848. By 1860 in both America and England vegetarian societies were established and by 1890 there were 34 vegetarian restaurants in London (Spencer, 1994). The aversion of many people to slaughter houses (should they think about them) today may stem from Victorian times when urbanisation resulted in people moving into towns and away from the countryside and farmed animals. In addition slaughter became another facet of mass production which may contribute to the revulsion felt by some. Spencer (1995) however, suggests that people began to over-sentimentalise about animals and so it was no co-incidence that the Vegetarian Society grew up in the heart of industrial Manchester remote from the land. By the middle of the 19th century efforts were being made to move slaughter houses to the edge of towns, as people wanted to enjoy meat without seeing how the animal got to their plate (Spencer, 1994).

 

 

America, science and commercialism.

            In America the popularity of the vegetarian diet was largely influenced by Sylvesta Graham (1794-1851). He addressed his own health problems by adopting a vegetarian diet (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963) and became an avid health reformer particularly noted for his promotion of wholemeal flour. He denounced foods that he thought "stimulating", since according to Graham excessive "stimulation" (in any form, not just dietary) was the root of all evil. He argued that as white flour was more concentrated it must be more stimulating. He maintained that a strictly vegetarian diet with only water was the most satisfactory for promoting health, strength and longevity (McCollum, 1957). Thus asceticism is a recurring theme throughout. In Graham’s view meat was to be avoided because it was especially stimulating (Whorton, 1994) as summarised by this paraphrased passage from “Oliver Twist” (1838):

 

“Its not madness, ma’am”, replied Mr Bumble, .... “It’s meat ma’am, meat..... You’ve overfed him... raised an artificial soul and spirit in him. What have paupers to do with soul or spirit?”

 

            This passage reflects a common trait; scientific knowledge of the day being manipulated to reinforce social status. It also indicates the high status accorded to meat reminiscent of the use of animals as sacrificial offerings and as tribute to the priesthood.

 

            The scientific basis for vegetarianism was affected considerably by John Harvey Kellogg. In America he administered the Battle Creek Sanatorium established by the Seventh Day Adventist community (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963) which became the most famous health institution of its time. As part of the Sanatorium’s dietary program, Kellogg created an assortment of meat substitutes and other vegetarian health foods, including breakfast cereals. Kellogg's theory was that high protein foods encouraged the activity of bacteria that acted upon undigested protein and poisoned the body. He suggested that low-fibre diets exacerbated this problem as the longer the food was in the gut the greater the time available for microbial action (Whorton, 1994). Thus religion, science, medicine and commerce merged.

 

            It can be seen that many advocates of the vegetarian diet seem to have become so as a result of treating their own ill-health. Furthermore the vegetarian diet is often associated with exhortations not to over-indulge. Thus powerful factors in the promotion of vegetarianism may have been, and perhaps still are: the inability of medical science to treat a variety of conditions, the conversion to vegetarian is perhaps a simple and effective way to address overindulgence (one of the most consistent findings in studies of the health of vegetarians is that they tend to be lighter and leaner than omnivores) and finally, the entrenched idea that self-denial is beneficial to body and soul (similar traits have been noted in the early treatment of diabetes mellitus with fasting; Hackett, 1987). Thus health benefits attributed to being vegetarian may be due physically, to addressing over-indulgence and spiritually, to the sense of well-being derived from so-doing.

 

 

The influence of Science in the nineteenth century.

            In the mid- 1800s, the chemist Leibig promoted the concept that energy for all muscular movement was produced by the oxidation of protein and divided foods into ‘flesh formers’ and ‘energy givers’. It was accepted by nutritionists of the time that the customary high meat / protein diet of heavy labourers was a physical necessity which seems to be a combination of ancient Greek ideas and the then modern theories of  human physiology and knowledge of the composition of muscle (Nieman, 1988). The medical profession as a whole, greatly strengthened by Leibig's work, ridiculed the new ideas on vegetarianism (Drummond and Wilbrahan, 1957). The typical meatless diet was thought to contain insufficient protein and so theoretically vegetarians were incapable of prolonged exercise or muscular development and hard work. The vegetarian diet was frequently attacked by members of the medical profession as being deleterious to health. For example in 1878 a paragraph in the British Medical Journal suggested that vegetarian diets resulted in chalky deposits in the arteries and hence premature ageing (Spencer, 1994). Indeed Trappist monks (a vegetarian sect) were reported to "very soon show arterial degeneration". A heavy meat diet was still advocated by some athletes for example, Captain Tobert Barclay, who gained considerable fame by walking 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours in 1809, lived during this period almost entirely on 5-6lbs of beef or mutton daily (Drummond and Wilbrahan, 1957). Even today massive intakes of protein are advocated by some sports coaches (and supplement manufacturers); especially for accumulating muscle mass although, curiously, this is sometimes associated with a vegetarian regime. Leibig's theory was not refuted until 1866 by Frankland who discovered that carbohydrates and fats were the major fuels of muscular activity (McCollum, 1957). Nevertheless Leibig's writings had a continuing impact well into the 20th century (Nieman, 1988) although many endurance athletes now tend towards vegetarian diets (van Erp-Baart et al, 1989) and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet has been found to lower circulating testosterone levels (Raben et al, 1992) which gives some support to the ancient belief that eating flesh promoted muscle growth. Thus protein, but more specifically meat in large quantities, was seen as being essential to both health and fitness throughout the nineteenth century and even up to the present. Since meat eating was, and is, the norm it might be argued that medical opinion would always favour the eating of meat in the absence of incontrovertible evidence that eating meat did harm.

 

            There were contrary views held, for example in the early 1880's the vegetarian cycling club was formed in London, and some of its members held world records. Dr. Allinson devised dietary recommendations for vegetarians and believed that vegetarian diets were best for athletes (Spencer, 1994). Vegetarians through the mid to late 1800s endeavoured to prove through excellence in endurance exercise the superiority of the plant based diet. Records were set by vegetarian long-distance walkers, runners, tennis players swimmers and other athletes (Nieman, 1988). Eustance Miles (1901) summarised the arguments in favour of a vegetarian diet (especially for athletes) combined with a general attack on the medical profession. In 1904 Schouteden set up an experiment to examine the ability of 25 students to lift a weight over a pulley by contracting a handle. His report showed that vegetarians had greater endurance, the number of contractions was 69 for vegetarians and 38 for meat-eaters (McCollum, 1957). Studies reported by Irving Fisher in Yale and by Kellogg at the Battle Creek Sanatorium agreed that the endurance of vegetarian athletes was greater than that of omnivores. Some modern reports support these findings (Raben et al, 1992). The sporting successes of vegetarians however, were often credited not to their diet but to their fanaticism (Whorton, 1994).

 

 

Religion, science and poverty.

            It is apparent that several religious movements embrace vegetarian ideals to differing degrees. One of the most significant from the point of view of modern understanding of vegetarian diet is Seventh-Day Adventism. Seventh-Day Adventism began in England in 1878 and followers believed that abstaining from meat, coffee, tobacco, tea, alcohol and snacks would help bring a second coming of Christ closer in time. There have been numerous modern large scale studies of the health of followers the Seventh-Day Adventist religion and most conclude on their superior health status. However it is not possible to investigate abstention from meat by itself. Following a vegetarian diet (sometimes partial) is sometimes associated with other dietary peculiarities such as avoiding snacking. Furthermore, there are potential benefits from being a member of a close knit purposeful group and vegetarians generally have a holistic view of life (Whorton, 1994). In the mid-nineteenth century however, religious authority was about to be subject to an unprecedented challenge.

 

            In 1859 Charles Darwin published his cataclysmic work “Origin of Species”. This gave a whole new set of perspectives to vegetarianism. On the one hand was the ‘survival of the fittest’ and ‘nature red in tooth and claw’ with humankind being viewed as just another animal. From these viewpoints it follows that eating meat is perfectly natural. On the other hand the theory of evolution made it clear that humankind has close links with all animal species, particularly mammals, suggesting that eating meat is an abhorrence. Further developments led to the evolution of the morphology of the teeth and digestive tract being used as both arguments for and against a meatless diet being both natural and unnatural with much argument as to whether humankind was descended from vegetarians or hunter-gatherers. Modern consensus favours the latter (paragraph 2). Thus science has continued to fuel the debate by discoveries in chemistry, anatomy, physiology and evolutionary theory.

 

            Throughout history a vegetarian diet has been enforced by poverty. In 1863 the first food inquiry in Britain was conducted by Dr. Edward Smith on behalf of the Medical Officer of the Privy Council. His enquiry concerned the "poor labouring classes", and examined the families of 370 English labourers from all parts of the country. It concluded that although agricultural labourers as a class were not badly fed, their wives and children frequently were, as the lion's share of the food went to the bread winner. It appears that it was accepted at that time that men should eat meat whilst their wives and children went without. Thus behaviour was in-line with scientific theory of the day (or vice versa). Smith remarked (Burnett, 1968):

 

" The important practical fact is however, well established that the labourer eats meat and bacon almost daily whilst  his wife and children may eat it but once a week."

 

The tendency for males to consume more meat than females persists today. In a study of the distribution of foods within the family Nelson (1986), reports that men habitually consume more than their "fair share" of meat. Furthermore, fewer men than women adopt a vegetarian lifestyle. The association throughout history of males with meat echoes ancient beliefs of sympathetic magic; to consume the flesh of large strong fierce beasts would bestow these properties on the diner. Such beliefs have lead to cannibalism, probably an ancient practice, which finally seems to have disappeared. A recent development is the decision of children not to eat meat; one study found that 34% of vegetarian children were the only vegetarians in the family (Nathan et al, 1996). This indicates not only a marked shift in relationships within families but also the probable impact of greater awareness (for example of farming and the origin of meat) on children. It may also indicate the manipulation of children by anti-meat lobby groups or, conversely, the countering of age-old pro-meat propaganda.

 

 

Exploration, trade and romanticism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

            Exploration and trade have also contributed to the history of vegetarianism; long sea voyages were associated with the development of scurvy and the value of fruit and vegetables as protective foods was eventually recognised. First hand observation of the eating habits of other nationalities has led to both support for a vegetarian diet (McCarrison, 1961; in this case a demi-vegetarian diet which included meat once per week) or for the inclusion of meat, occasionally to the exclusion of all else; Stephansson, (1921) writing in praise of Eskimo eating habits:

 

“When you go from a mixed diet to a diet of meat alone, you never feel any worse for the change, - usually better.”.

 

Uncritical assessments of the diets of  ‘natives’ often suggests an idyllic disease free existence which could be ours if only appropriate lifestyles (diet) and attitudes were adopted. Rousseau and later the romantic poet Shelley adopted and promoted  vegetarian diets (Shelley in his essay “A vindication of the natural diet”) (Hardinge & Crooks, 1963). Such exhortations usually ignore the grim reality of subsistence lifestyles and the impracticality of supporting very large (urban) populations in such a fashion. Nevertheless increased world travel and immigration, particularly in the late twentieth century, have given further impetus to the British vegetarian movement by expanding experience, availability and variety of vegetarian foods.

 

 

The twentieth century.

            By the beginning of the 20th century considerable advances in nutritional research had been made; including the discovery of ‘accessory food factors’ or vitamins. At the end of World War I, civil rationing began with meat rationed to three quarters of a pound each week per person and vegetarians promoted vegetarian recipes. Hardinge and Crooks (1964) suggest that between World Wars I and II vegetarianism lost much of the stigma of "cultism" and advanced on a more scientific basis which would be very convenient for a nation on the verge of starvation with the spectre of socialist revolution at hand. Vegetarianism however, has been consistently related to pacifism and the refusal to fight has often been attributed to weakness. The wholesale slaughter in the trenches may also have promoted the vegetarian cause. Thus old ideas were given a new lease of life.

 

            With the second World War sufficient scientific, medical and economic facts were available to make rationing an objective process (Drummond and Wilbrahan, 1957). Both world wars gave massive impetus not only to the development of nutritional science but also to its application and hence social justice. People were rationed according to need not by ability to pay (which reflects the aspirations of the fledgling national health service). The recognition of the scientific basis of nutrition and the importance of fruit and vegetables changed significantly the view of a vegetarian diet. Rationing meant that people had to eat less meat but far more vegetables; including wholly vegetarian dishes. This was justified and promoted by the nutritional scientists and the Food Advice Division of the Ministry of Food (set up in 1916) (Spencer, 1994) in perhaps the most intensive nutrition education programme ever. Vegetarianism could be regarded therefore, as having been officially encouraged.

 

            Vegetarianism seems to be currently associated with young professional people and might be regarded as another manifestation of image; even as a fashion accessory. This may explain why vegetarian foods have become an important sector of the food market, ironically perhaps, especially of highly processed foods which often command premium prices. Vegetarian products, which were a minority market of almost amateur products, have emerged as a lucrative niche market in a very competitive industry. Vegetarianism is becoming institutionalised.

 

 

The growth of extremism in the twentieth century..

            In 1944 the Vegan Society was formed whose members broke away from the vegetarian society because it refused to publicise the vegan view (Spencer, 1994). Arguably this started a trend towards activism. "Animal Machine" by Ruth Harrison (1960), was one of the first publications to draw attention to the methods of livestock rearing and led to the development of the animal rights movement. Another key publication was Peter Singer's (1975) book, “Animal Liberation” which shocked many people with its account of the treatment of animals in modern factory farms and laboratories (Amato and Partridge, 1989). The recent food scares and publicity given to modern farming methods have been associated with increasing numbers of vegetarians and the direct action of some. Occasionally this action has been violent using the tactics of terrorists. Recently the longest and most expensive case in British legal history (The so-called ‘McLibel case’; writs were issued in 1990 and judgement pronounced in June 1997) has encompassed vegetarian issues. These included food safety, nutrition, health, moral and economic arguments. Vegetarianism has become a political force.

 

 

Vegetarianism and health - current debate.

            Since the early 1980s scientific opinion has shifted. Higher consumption of  fruit and vegetables is encouraged with less meat products (DH, 1994). Overall, the role of meat in the diet remains controversial (WCRF, 1997; DH, 1998). Concerns over food safety and nutrition have led to the questioning of the role of meat in the national diet as never before. Recommendations for reductions in meat consumption were released to the press (eg Laurance, September 1997) but the COMA report upon which they were apparently based has only just been published (March, 1998) suggesting political interference. The consensus seems to be that whilst being vegetarian is associated with less disease there is insufficient scientific evidence to accept that a vegetarian diet brings about better health (Higgs, 1995), contrary to the opinion of the vegetarian society (Bond, 1995). It would appear that major stumbling blocks to resolving this argument are firstly, the extent to which vegetarians are different from their peers in ways other than diet. It is also possible that following a vegetarian diet gives rise to a powerful placebo effect by being a source of pleasure and well-being (a feeling of doing something worthwhile) and a sense of identity by becoming part of a group (MacCleod, 1995). Secondly, consideration should be given to the extent to which it is possible to be truly objective for investigators already committed to a view on including meat in his or her own dietary. Furthermore, there are huge vested interests concerned with promoting the sale of meat and more recently meat-free products. This paper has shown that the arguments for and against meat in the diet have raged for centuries in all spheres: magical, religious, philosophical, economical, medical, environmental, political and scientific, pseudo-scientific and commercial. Many of these feature regularly and prominently in the modern media. It would seem to be impossible therefore to divorce completely the study of vegetarianism from all these other influences; even for very closely controlled experimental studies.

 

 

Conclusion.

            Many of the arguments surrounding a vegetarian diet were established centuries ago and the range of arguments has grown and their every facet explored, but the issue is still intensely controversial. The role of meat has clearly been seen in different terms at particular times and places; as cultural norms and scientific theories have shifted so vegetarianism has been viewed in different lights. Meat has been associated with masculinity, strength, power, wealth, over-indulgence and intellect but also cruelty, waste, improved health and ill-health. Vegetarianism has been linked with femininity, weakness, religion, self-denial, moral strength, ill-health, improved health, radical thinking, pacifism and poverty. For many vegetarians and omnivores their diet is an integral part of their attitudes and lifestyles. These may differ markedly between the two groups. Objectivity has been clouded by  these factors, including religion and culture, and so studying vegetarianism and vegetarians is likely to be very different from studying the effects of consuming meat or a meat free diet. This brief discussion has identified how science and opinions regarding the vegetarian diet are entangled and how difficult it is to study the scientific basis alone for following a vegetarian diet, it certainly adds to the view that “moral fervour needs to be informed by cool-headed science” (Whorton, 1994).

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